LIS SIM Journals - N-Z

Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D.J. (2007). Scientific inquiry in educational multi-user virtual environments. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 16(1), p. 83-97.

This study examines the patterns of use and potential impact of individualized, reflective guidance in an educational Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE). A guidance system embedded within a MUVE-based scientific inquiry curriculum was implemented with a sample of middle school students in an exploratory study investigating (a) whether access to the guidance system was associated with improved learning, (b) whether students viewing more guidance messages saw greater improvement on content tests than those viewing less, and (c) whether there were any differences in guidance use among boys and girls. Initial experimental findings showed that basic access to individualized guidance used with a MUVE had no measurable impact on learning. However, post-hoc exploratory analyses indicated that increased use of the system among those with access to it was positively associated with content test score gains. In addition, differences were found in overall learning outcomes by gender and in patterns of guidance use by boys and girls, with girls outperforming boys across a spectrum of guidance system use. Based on these exploratory findings, the paper suggests design guidelines for the development of guidance systems embedded in MUVEs and outlines directions for further research.

Noveck, B.S. The State of Play, New York Law School Law Review, 49(1), p. 1-18.

This is the first collected exploration of law and virtual worlds for the wider legal and scholarly community. This special Symposium issue of the New York Law School Law Review grows out of the first annual State of Play Conference, held at New York Law School from November 13-15, 2003. The State of Play, organized by the Information Society Project at Yale Law School and the Institute for Information Law and Policy at New York Law School, brought together leading legal scholars and practitioners with game designers and software industry professionals, as well as cognitive psychologists, communications experts, computer scientists, visual artists, and game players to explore the new frontier of cyberspace: the virtual world.

Okada, M., Tarumi, H., Yoshimura, T., and Moriya, K. (2001). Collaborative environmental education using distributed virtual environment accessible from real and virtual worlds. Special Issue on SAC 2001, 9(1), p. 15-21.

We have designed and implemented a support system for collaborative environmental education, DigitalEE, which realizes distributed virtual environment accessible from real and virtual worlds. This system introduces the following diverse features into environmental education: global arguments supported by the Internet, giving learners pseudo experiences by virtual reality, supplementing real natural experiences by augmented reality, and giving learners experts' valuable knowledge by distance education. Shared virtual space in the distributed virtual environment is "3D virtual nature", which is a VRML world representing the real nature. Learners learning through direct experiences can enter the 3D virtual nature from the real world with mobile computers, whereas experts and other participants can enter the 3D virtual nature from distant locations with their personal computers. People throughout the world can communicate with each other while sharing the same place virtually between real and virtual worlds. Learners' observation, experts' knowledge, and other participants' information are continuously accumulated in the shared 3D virtual nature as VRML objects and web pages, and the world is being updated dynamically in the learning process. With these ideas, DigitalEE realizes a new style of environmental education such as collaborative outdoor learning supported by knowledgeable experts throughout the world and interactive virtual tours to inaccessible natural environment.

Oishi, L. (2007). Surfing Second Life: what does Second Life have to do with real-life learning? Technology and Learning, 27(11). Retrieved from http://www.techlearning.com/story/showArticle.php?articleID=196604483 on 4/1/08.

Second Life's unstructured atmosphere and wide-open spaces where student creativity can grow and flourish are two of the reasons Pepperdine University Professor Bill Moseley integrated the program into his curriculum. In this article, the author discusses how Second Life works and its challenges. Second Life is often described as a 3-D version of the Web, because it adds a rich visual aspect to Internet activities, such as socializing, fact finding, and doing business. Since it is technically not a game, there is no intrinsic goal to playing, and the range of possibilities is almost infinitely wide. Despite the higher-order thinking required to program object movement and the strategies necessary for successful trading--not to mention the reinforcement of such 21st-century skills as collaboration and innovation--Second Life suffers from the same challenges as other open-ended resources that teach such abstract or difficult-to-measure skills. As with many other tools, the virtual environment does not target the core curriculum schools must spend most of their time focusing on. The possibility of embedding focused, high-quality games into Second Life is something advocates see as a distinct possibility, but Second Life's current technical problems and unregulated environment mean game creation is cost-prohibitive and difficult.

Ondrejka, Cory. “Education Unleashed: Participatory Culture, Education, and Innovation in Second Life." The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games, and Learning. Edited by Katie Salen. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 229–252. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/dmal.9780262693646.229?cookieSet=1

Ong, S.K. and Mannan, M.A. (2004). Virtual reality simulations and animations in a web-based interactive manufacturing engineering module. Computers & Education, 43(4), p. 361-382.

This paper presents a web-based interactive teaching package that provides a comprehensive and conducive yet dynamic and interactive environment for a module on automated machine tools in the Manufacturing Division at the National University of Singapore. The use of Internet technologies in this teaching tool makes it possible to conjure visualisations that cannot be achieved using traditional teaching materials such as transparencies. Virtual reality simulations and animations were developed and appropriately placed in the teaching materials to enhance the student understanding of complex concepts. This is especially useful in teaching automated machine tools, which deals primarily with the numerical control (NC) of the motions of automated machine tools. These virtual reality simulations and animations provide the capability of training students in NC programming and operations without the need to work on actual NC machines in the laboratory. The simulations are suitably placed in the package to engage the students and enhance their concentration, while at the same time generate interactions. Customised question types were also designed and implemented with a tutorial monitoring application.

Osawa, N., Asai, K. and Saito, F. (2002). An interactive toolkit library for 3D applications: it3d. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 23, Proceedings of the workshop on virtual environments 2002, p. 149-157. Aire-la-Ville, Switzerland: Eurographics Association.

An interactive toolkit library for developing 3D applications called "it3d" is described that utilize artificial reality (AR) technologies. It was implemented by using the Java language and the Java 3D class library to enhance its portability. It3d makes it easy to construct AR applications that are portable and adaptable. It3d consists of three sub-libraries: an input/output library for distributed devices, a 3D widget library for multimodal interfacing, and an interaction-recognition library. The input/output library for distributed devices has a uniform programming interface style for various types of devices. The interfaces are defined by using OMG IDL. The library utilizes multicast peer-to-peer communication to enable efficient device discovery and exchange of events and data. Multicast-capable CORBA functions have been developed and used. The 3D widget library for the multimodal interface has useful 3D widgets that support efficient and flexible customization based on prototype-based object orientation, or a delegation model. The attributes of a widget are used to customize it dynamically. The attributes constitute a hierarchical structure. The interaction-recognition library is used to recognize basic motions in a 3D space, such as pointing, selecting, pinching, grasping, and moving. The library is flexible, and the recognition conditions can be given as parameters. A new recognition engine can be developed by using a new circular event history buffer to efficiently manage and retrieve past events. Development of immersive AR applications using it3d demonstrated that less time is needed to develop the applications with it3d than without it. It3d makes it easy to construct AR applications that are portable and adaptable.

Pan, Z., Cheok, A.D., Yang, H. and Zhu, J. (2006). Virtual reality and mixed reality for virtual learning environments. Computers & Graphics, 30(1), p. 20-28.

This paper explores educational uses of virtual learning environment (VLE) concerned with issues of learning, training and entertainment. We analyze the state-of-art research of VLE based on virtual reality and augmented reality. Some examples for the purpose of education and simulation are described. These applications show that VLE can be means of enhancing, motivating and stimulating learners’ understanding of certain events, especially those for which the traditional notion of instructional learning have proven inappropriate or difficult. Furthermore, the users can learn in a quick and happy mode by playing in the virtual environments.

Parsons, S., Leonard, A., Mitchell, P. (2006). Virtual environments for social skills training: comments from two adolescents with autistic spectrum disorder. Computers & Education, 47(2), p. 186-206.

Previous research has shown that computer-based tasks can motivate people with autism and encourage learning. As a computer-based medium, Virtual Environments (VEs) offer a potentially useful tool for social skills training for people with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs). However, there are some concerns over whether people with ASDs can understand, use and interpret the technology appropriately. This paper adopts a qualitative case-study approach to report observations of, and comments from, two adolescent boys with ASDs, gathered during a series of sessions using a virtual cafe and bus environment. Although there were signs of repetitive behaviours, literal interpretation of the scenes, and that the VEs were treated as not having real-world relevance, these were not the dominant modes of responding. Instead, participants seemed to interpret the scenes meaningfully and appreciated the opportunities to discuss appropriate social responses with a facilitator sitting alongside. They enjoyed using the VEs and provided specific examples of how the VEs had helped, or could help, them in the real world. This gives encouraging support for the idea that VEs can be used and interpreted meaningfully by at least some students with ASDs. The paper concludes with some considerations for the future development of VEs for members of this population.

Papargyris, A. and Poulymenakou, A. (2005). Learning to fly in persistent digital worlds: the case of massively multiplayer online role playing games. ACM SIGGROUP Bulletin, 25(1), p. 41-49.

This paper discusses virtual communities' formation and skill development through the process of participation in collective practices in on-line role-playing game environments. The study that follows is mainly based on the participant observation of players acting in two popular Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games. Data have been collected through participation and observation of players and their unfolding practices in forming and maintaining such communities. The objective was to document these practices and to study virtual game environments in order to understand learning opportunities within and among these communities, and to identify design elements of the game that cultivate community building. The primary unit of analysis is the in-game communities known as 'guilds'. Research findings indicate that in such multicultural and anonymous environments, many learning processes are evolving that affect both players' understanding of the game's state, and their social interaction and communication skills.

Pence, H.E. (2008). The homeless professor in Second Life. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(2), p. 171-177.

The virtual online world called Second Life can be deceptive. It looks like a game, but the participants are not assigned goals. Indeed, it may be said that the goal of Second Life is to create one's own goals. As a result, the residents of Second Life choose to work in many different directions. Some choose to develop land; some try to earn money; some try to learn how to create objects; and, frankly, some pursue a life of total hedonism. This article describes the experiences of one faculty member who decided to work toward two goals, learning more about teaching in a virtual space and having interesting conversations with the many talented and fascinating people who inhabit Second Life. In the absence of campus support, the author chose to accept the image of the homeless professor. These experiences provide a background for discussing teaching in a virtual world. Finally, this article will attempt a more general review of the advantages and disadvantages of education in Second Life.

Peters, T. (2008). Meeting and Serving Users in Their New Work (and Play) Spaces, Policy Futures in Education, 6(1), p. 43-48.

This article examines the public services component of digital and virtual libraries, focusing on the end-user experience. As the number and types of 'places' where library users access library collections and services continue to expand (now including cell phones, iPods, and three-dimensional virtual reality environments populated by avatars), librarians and educators need to examine the key components of these experiential environments, then establish and deploy service programs and underlying policies and procedures that exploit the affordances offered by these new usage environments. Several of the characteristics of these new service environments (e.g. the competition - or conflation - between learning and entertainment, the competition between various libraries and information services in the same space, the read-write participatory nature of many of these environments, and the arrival in a big way of multimedia - both concurrent and serial) are explored.

Polster, A. (2007). Campus 2.0: Second Life allows educators to interact with students through virtual world as program's popularity rises across academia. Retrieved from http://media.www.dailyorange.com/media/storage/paper522/news/2007/10/05/News/Campus.2.0.Second.Life.Allows.Educators.To.Interact.With.Students.Through.Virtu-3014317.shtml

Proserpio, L. and Gioia, D.A. (2007). Teaching the virtual generation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(1), p. 69-80.

Using Gioia and Brass' 1986 article, "Teaching the TV Generation," as a point of departure for considering our current instructional environment, we focus on a relatively recent development that once again has implications for our teaching pedagogies: that we are, in fact, no longer teaching a verbal, nor even just a visual, but now a virtual generation of students. Technological and social changes in the wider environment can have major implications for teaching and learning pedagogies--i.e., optimal teaching and learning occur when teaching styles align with learning styles. For that reason, we consider some key learning principles in light of the learning styles of our current generation of students, who are quite facile with virtual technologies. We argue that the effective use of some electronic learning tools can provide useful and engaging means for their education by addressing this generation's preferences for virtual media while also enabling student-directed interactivity (via online searches, games, simulations, etc.). We first articulate the conceptual grounds for arguing that there has been another shift in the teaching and learning environment we now face--which implies some necessary adaptation of traditional learning principles. We then discuss: (a) some technologies and applications (mainly Internet-based tools and videogames) that can facilitate the convergence between virtual generation (V-Gen) preferences and classroom interactions; (b) some guidelines for using these technologies to fulfill these learning principles and; (c) some pitfalls that can occur and how to avoid them.

Psotka, J. (1995). Immersive training systems: Virtual reality and education and training. Instructional Science, 23(5-6), p. 405-431.

This paper provides an introduction to the technology of virtual reality (VR) and its possibilities for education and training. It focuses on immersion as the key added value of VR, and analyzes what cognitive variables are connected to immersion, how it is generated in synthetic environments, what immersion is, and what its benefits are. The central research question is the value of tracked, immersive visual displays over non-immersive simulations. The paper provides a brief overview of existing VR research on training and transfer, education, and procedural, cognitive and maintenance training.

Qian, Y. (2008). Learning in 3-D virtual worlds: rethinking media literacy. Educational Technology, 48(2), p. 38-41.

3-D virtual worlds, as a new form of learning environments in the 21st century, hold great potential in education. Learning in such environments, however, demands a broader spectrum of literacy skills. This article identifies a new set of media literacy skills required in 3-D virtual learning environments by reviewing exemplary 3-D virtual learning programs in K-12 settings.

Regan, P.M., Slator, B.M. (2002). Case-based tutoring in virtual education environments. In Collaborative Virtual Environments, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Collaborative Virtual Environments, p. 2-9. New York: ACM.

Virtual education environments are gaining popularity as tools to enhance student learning. These environments are often used to allow students to experience situations that would be difficult, costly, or impossible in the physical world. North Dakota State University (NDSU) provides students with environments to enhance their understanding of geology (Planet Oit), cellular biology (Virtual Cell), retailing (DollarBay), and history (Blackwood). In order to maximize the learning potential of each individual student, an ideal environment needs to provide customized lessons to that student based on his or her individual performance. One method to address this requirement is the use of case-based reasoning which is used to monitor student performance, track progress throughout an environment, compare the student to other students in the same environment, and create customized tutor dialogs to communicate this information to the student in the form of individual tutor lessons. An example of case-based lesson building software that meets the above requirements can be observed in the current DollarBay retailing environment at NDSU.

Rickel, J., Marsella, S., Gratch, J., Hill, R., Traum, D. and Swartout, W. (2002). Toward a new generation of virtual humans for interactive experiences. Intelligent Systems, IEEE, 17(4), p. 32-38.

Interactive virtual worlds provide a powerful medium for entertainment and experiential learning. The goal of the Mission Rehearsal Exercise (MRE) project is to enrich such virtual worlds with virtual humans-autonomous agents that support face-to-face interaction with people in these environments in a variety of roles. Although this task is daunting, the key building blocks are already in place. The MRE project involves an ambitious integration of core technologies centered on a common representation of task knowledge. An implemented virtual world and set of characters for an Army peacekeeping scenario illustrates the project's vision.

Rieber, L.P., Tzeng, S.-C. and Tribble, K. (2004). Discovery learning, representation, and explanation within a computer-based simulation: finding the right mix. Learning and Instruction, 14(3), p. 307-323.

The purpose of this research was to explore how adult users interact and learn during an interactive computer-based simulation supplemented with brief multimedia explanations of the content. A total of 52 college students interacted with a computer-based simulation of Newton’s laws of motion in which they had control over the motion of a simple screen object—an animated ball. Two simulation conditions were studied, each differing in how the feedback of the ball’s speed, direction, and position was represented: graphical feedback consisted of animated graphics and textual feedback consisted of numeric displays. In addition, half of the participants were given simulations supplemented with brief multimedia explanations of the content modeled by the simulation in order to investigate how to promote referential processing, a key component of dual coding theory. Results showed significant differences for both the use of the explanations and simulations containing graphical feedback in helping participants gain both implicit and explicit understanding of the science principles.

Segrave, S. (2003) HOTcopy®;Benchmarking Design of Simulated Professional Practice for Authentic Learner Engagement. Interact, Integrate, Impact: Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE), pp. 465-475. Retrieved March 25, 2008 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/adelaide03/docs/pdf/465.pdf

HOTcopy® offers a virtual practicum in print-media journalism, inviting immersion in a series of interactive, real-time simulations of workplace scenarios. Consistent with situated professional practice, work assignments are set and emerge while interventions from scenario characters add new challenges and deadline pressures. Taking on the roles of reporter or sub-editor, learners analyse information, make judgments, reflect on actions, receive feedback on decisions and try to finalise ‘copy’ on time. Aiming to establish a genuine ‘learning relationship’ with students, HOTcopy invites engagement and situated knowledge-building rather than abstract content transfer. Learners use high order cognitive skills to solve the scenario-based problems while writing news stories in context. Legal, ethical and relationship issues also challenge each individual’s knowledge, values and feelings. But as HOTcopy ‘lightly’ supports the learner’s apprenticeship in news writing, is this mediated experience, engaging, as the moderating factors filter the ‘messiness’ of real-life? Do learners experience authentic engagement as they encounter designed ambiguity and complexity? This paper benchmarks quality education design features in HOTcopy against principles and attributes of authentic engagement reported in Oliver (2001), Hedberg (2002), and Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, (2002).

Shaffer, D. W. (2004). Pedagogical praxis: The professions as models for post-industrial education. Teachers College Record, 106(7), 1401-1421. Retrieved from: http://coweb.wcer.wisc.edu/cv/papers/TCRpedprax.pdf

In this article, I propose a theory of pedagogical praxis. Pedagogical praxis begins with the premise that under the right conditions, computers and other information technologies can make it easier for students to become active participants in meaningful projects and practices in the life of their community and suggests that professional practices such as architecture, mediation, and journalism can provide constructive models for helping students learn from such experiences. In this vision, new technology reinvigorates Dewey’s (1915) idea of linking school with society. Technology builds a bridge that allows young people to participate in the learning practices of professionals; in the process, they develop epistemological frameworks that organize the skills, habits, and understandings they need to thrive in a complex, postindustrial society. Although further work needs to be done to explore the processes through which such learning can take place, studies suggest that this perspective may be a productive avenue for continuing research. This article presents an overview of the theories and methods that inform such work.

Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K. D., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. P. (2005). Video Games and the Future of Learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 104-111. Retrieved from: http://coweb.wcer.wisc.edu/cv/papers/videogamesfuturelearning_pdk_2005.pdf

Most educators are dismissive of video games. But corporations, the government, and the military have already recognized and harnessed their tremendous educative power. Schools have to catch up, the authors argue.

Sims, E.M. (2007). Reusable, lifelike virtual humans for mentoring and role-playing. Computers & Education 49(1), p. 75-92.

Lifelike, interactive digital characters, serving as mentors and role-playing actors, have been shown to significantly improve learner motivation and retention. However, the cost of modeling such characters, authoring and editing their interactions, and delivering them over limited-bandwidth connections can be prohibitive. This paper describes a framework, authoring tools, and Web-based run-time environment that support the creation of training scenarios using digital virtual humans and other reusable 3D components. By conforming to the Humanoid Animation (H-Anim), Extensible 3D, and ADL Shareable Content Object Reference Model specifications, these 3D components are designed to promote reuse and interoperability at several levels. Recently, these software tools were used to develop prototype lessons in foreign language and cultural familiarization for use at the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center. These lessons include simulations in which the student, taking the role of a US soldier, interacts with the local population of a foreign culture in authentic situations, using both English and the local dialect. Digital virtual humans are used to represent not only the soldier, and the role-playing actors; but also a mentor who reviews language and cultural learning points, and provides remediation. Using these prototype lessons as examples, we review the potential advantages of the technology in other training applications.

Smith, R. (2006) Game Impact Theory: The Five Forces That Are Driving the Adoption of Game Technologies within Multiple Established Industries. Chief Technology Officer’s Network. Retrieved from http://www.ctonet.org/documents/SmithR_GameImpactTheory.pdf on 4/1/08.

The computer gaming industry has begun to export powerful products and technologies from its initial entertainment roots to a number of “serious” industries. Games are being adopted for defense, medicine, architecture, education, city planning, and government applications. Each of these industries is already served by an established family of companies that typically do not use games or the technologies that support them. The rapid growth in the power of game technologies and the growing social acceptance of these technologies has created an environment in which these are displacing other industry-specific computer hardware and software suites.

This paper puts forward a game impact theory that identifies five specific forces that compel industries to adopt game technologies for their core products and services. These five forces are computer hardware costs, game software power, social acceptance, other industry successes, and native industry experimentation. Together these influence the degree and rapidity at which game technologies are adopted in a number of industries. This theory is meant to be useful to managers who must make decisions about adopting, investigating, or ignoring these new technologies.

Steinkuhler, C. (2008). Massively multiplayer online games as an educational Technology: an outline for research, Educational Technology, 48(1), p. 10-21.

For those with a vested interest in online technologies for learning, the knowledge and skills that constitute successful participation in massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) places these games squarely among the most promising new digital technologies to date. In this article, the author broadly outlines the qualitative results of a two and a half year cognitive ethnography of the MMO Lineage and describes the current trajectory of research being pursued, based on those findings: (a) the empirical investigation of focused research questions in order to document and analyze those core practices that constitute gameplay in virtual worlds, and (b) the development of educational activities for after-school clubs that capitalize on those capacities found throughout the research. This essay concludes with a reflection on the multiple relation- ships between games and education, highlighting the potential for such technologies to transform not only the means of education but also perhaps some of the goals.

Steinkuehler, C., and Williams, D. (2006). Where everybody knows your (screen) name: Online games as "third places." Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), article 1. Retrieved from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue4/steinkuehler.html on 4/7/08.

This article examines the form and function of massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) in terms of social engagement. Combining conclusions from media effects research informed by the communication effects literature with those from ethnographic research informed by a sociocultural perspective on cognition and learning, we present a shared theoretical framework for understanding (a) the extent to which such virtual worlds are structurally similar to "third places" (Oldenburg, 1999) for informal sociability, and (b) their potential function in terms of social capital (Coleman, 1988; Putnam, 2000). Our conclusion is that by providing spaces for social interaction and relationships beyond the workplace and home, MMOs have the capacity to function as one form of a new "third place" for informal sociability. Participation in such virtual "third places" appears particularly well suited to the formation of bridging social capital—social relationships that, while not usually providing deep emotional support, typically function to expose the individual to a diversity of worldviews.

Slator, B.M., Juell, P., McClean, P.E., Saini-Eidukat, B., Schwert, D.P., White, A.R., and Hill, C. (1999). Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 22(3), p. 161-174.

WWWIC, the NDSU World Wide Web Instructional Committee, is engaged in developing a range of virtual environments for education. These projects span a range of disciplines, from earth science to anthropology, and from business to biology. However, all of these projects share a strategy, a set of assumptions, an approach to assessment, and an emerging tool set, which allows each to leverage from the insights and advances of the others.

Slator, B.M., Hill, C. Del Val, D. (2004). Teaching computer science with virtual worlds. IEEE Transactions on Education, 47(2), p. 269-275.

The ProgrammingLand MOOseum of Computer Science is a multiuser virtual environment hosted on the Internet. It is built on a model of exploratory, spatially oriented immersion, where visitors learn principles of computer science as they journey through the content. The MOOseum is divided into "wings" that are devoted to particular programming languages and is populated with an array of interactive objects and agents that facilitate an active learning experience. This paper describes the environment and the effort to integrate it into the curriculum.

Taylor, J. (1997). The Emerging Geographies of Virtual Worlds, The Geographical Review, 87(2), p. 172-192.

Virtual reality (VR) is creating new worlds. "Virtual reality" commonly has three components: a computer system that lets the user interact with a virtual space; the virtual world itself, a computer-generated 3-D visual or audiovisual environment either created originally or based on a simulation of the real world; and the interaction of the user with the virtual world in real time (Thierauf 1995, 22). Although the terms virtual world and virtual reality can have different meanings, this discussion focuses on a type of computer application that "lets users navigate and interact with a three-dimensional, computer-generated (and computer-maintained) environment in real time" (Pratt, Zyda, and Kelleher 1995, 17).

Thomas, D. and Brown, J. S. (2007). The Play of Imagination: Extending the Literary Mind. Games and Culture, 2(2), p. 149-172.

As games, particularly virtual worlds, become increasingly popular and as they begin to approximate large scale social systems in size and nature, they have also become spaces where play and learning have merged in fundamental ways. More important is the idea that the kind of learning that happens in the spaces of these massively multiplayer online games is fundamentally different than what we have come to consider as standard pedagogical practice. The distinction the authors make is that traditional paradigms of instruction have addressed learning as "learning about," while these new forms of learning deal with knowledge through the dynamic of "learning to be."It is the authors' contention that the experiences offered within virtual worlds provide a fundamentally different way of thinking about learning that may provide some keys to the development of future pedagogical practice.

Urban, R. (2007). Second Life, serious leisure and LIS. American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T). Retrieved from http://www.asis.org/Bulletin/Aug-07/urban.html

In the Fall of 2005 I had the opportunity to participate in a semester-long seminar on game culture and technology offered through the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at the University of Illinois. Although I never considered myself a hard-core gamer, I believed that the topic would be an interesting extension of my interest in the use of information science in museums and cultural heritage institutions. Museums, after all, have been exploring the use of informal learning methods through the use of games and play for a long time. With this in mind I took my first steps into the multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) Second Life.

Vezina, N., IsaBelle, C., Fournier, H., Dufresne, A. & Doucet, J. (2004). 3D virtual reality: motivation, sense of belonging and perseverance. In L. Cantoni & C. McLoughlin (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2004 (p. 1677-1682). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

There is widespread interest in using a 3D virtual world in many contexts, including education. However, few scientific studies have been conducted assessing the impact of virtual graphic interfaces in distance learning. Since February 2003, a study with Canadian participants is underway which aims to measure the impact of the SmartVR 3D interface with avatars, on their motivation and their sense of belonging in the context of distance education. To facilitate the study, a portable computer was given to all students registered for a particular distance education course. The purpose of the following paper is to present the Learning Content Management System, the 3D virtual interface adapted from the SmartVR platform and used for the on-line course, as well as results from the study. Preliminary data show interesting results based on the learning styles of the participants, their motivation, their sense of belonging and their level of perseverance in the context of online learning.

Virvou, M. and Katsionis, G. On the usability and likeability of virtual reality games for education: the case of VR-ENGAGE, Computers & Education, 50(1), p. 154-178.

Educational software games aim at increasing the students' motivation and engagement while they learn. However, if software games are targeted to school classrooms they have to be usable and likeable by all students. Usability of virtual reality games may be a problem because these games tend to have complex user interfaces so that they are more attractive. Moreover, if the games acquire an educational content they may lose the attractiveness and appeal that they have on users who are familiar with commercial games. Consequently, likeability may also be questioned. In this paper, we address the issue of usability and likeability of a virtual reality game that is meant to teach students geography. We describe the evaluation experiments conducted, which involved three categories of students in terms of their level of game-playing expertise: novice, intermediate and expert game players. The evaluation results showed that the game was indeed usable and likeable but there was scope for usability and likeability improvement so that the educational benefits may be maximised for all categories of students. The evaluation studies reported in this paper, revealed important issues about further research on virtual reality educational games.

Winn, W. (1993). A Conceptual Basis for Educational Applications of Virtual Reality. Report No. TR-93-9. Retrieved from http://www.hitl.washington.edu/publications/r-93-9/ on 3/31/08.

Virtual Reality (VR) has caught the imagination of many people. Frequent reports in the popular and technical press describe the hardware and software that permit people to "enter" a computer-created "world" and give accounts of what the VR experience is like. Invariably, these reports end with claims for the applicability of VR to all manner of activities, including education. This paper discusses the potential value of VR to education. It does so in the light of research conducted at the Human Interface Technology Laboratory at the University of Washington and on the basis of recent developments in cognitive theory that are relevant to human learning. The case is made that immersive VR offers very different kinds of experience than those students normally encounter in school. The psychological processes that become active in immersive VR are very similar to the psychological processes that operate when people construct knowledge through interaction with objects and events in the real world. Such a convergence of learning processes with experiences permitted by technology is relatively rare and requires that we rigorously examine both the psychological and the technological sides of the equation. This paper therefore starts with a description and analysis of VR. It then describes recent psychological theories of knowledge construction. Finally it examines the nature of the confluence of VR and constructivist learning theory -- the "goodness of fit" between the two, concluding that constructivism is the best basis for building a theory of learning in virtual environments.

Winn, W. (1999). Learning in virtual environments: A theoretical framework and considerations for design. Educational Media International, 36(4), 271–79.

The article discusses the use of Virtual Environments (VEs) in teaching and learning. It examines the characteristics of effective VE in learning environments, looking at the added value produced by immersion, whereby students learn directly rather than through difficult symbol systems. Many misapprehensions about VE are corrected, and the conclusions drawn are very pertinent for the use of VEs in teaching and training.

Woods, B., Whitworth, E., Hadziomerovic, A., Fiset, J., Dormann, C., Caquard, S., Hayes, A. & Biddle, R. (2005). Repurposing a computer role playing game for engaging learning. In P. Kommers & G. Richards (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2005 (pp. 4430-4435). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

This paper presents a research endeavor to study how learning can be supported using a computer role-playing game. This research is based on the development of a custom game module designed within the platform of the popular role-playing game, Neverwinter Nights. Research suggests that through providing a student with a rich learning environment, using meaningful metaphors and narratives, as well as evocative interactions among characters and objects, we can greatly contribute to an increased sense-of presence, level of immersion, and interest within a game learning environment. Through the immersive environment, metaphor, narrative, and interactivity, we support informal learning. In our game, the learning agenda happens within an Antarctic context and setting. Players progress through interactive and engaging story lines, and in the process, they learn about scientific processes and the issues and controversies surrounding global warming.

Xiao, A., Biyden, K. Brigham, D. (2004). Virtual Reality Tools for Enhancing Interactive Learning. In 2004 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition: Engineering Education Reaches New Heights, p. 20-23. Salt Lake City, UT: ASEE.

Virtual reality (VR) technology is capable of constructing a user-centered, three-dimensional environment that is familiar to the student onto which abstract and complex information can be imposed. Thus virtual environment can stimulate interactive learning and comprehension, which are essential in engineering education. Despite these advantages, there are several barriers to the use of virtual reality in engineering education, including a lack of simple, easy-to-use, low cost software that can enable the instructor to build virtual environments for educational use. In this paper, we discuss our experiences in developing a virtual education program in biotechnology for Indian Hills Community College. This discussion includes the development of VE-Suite, an extensible, cross-platform, open source, freely downloadable library of tools that enable engineering education in a virtual environment. Using this software, a virtual fermentor was developed, which not only allows students to explore the inner workings of the fermentation tank, but also to be able to simulate the fermentation process so they can test-rum the virtual fermentor by varying the operation parameters and observe the results instantly. Finally, a human factor experiment was conducted to study the effectiveness of different data visualization methods that should be used in the virtual fermentor at facilitating students' self-paced learning.

Ye, E., Liu, C., Polack-Wahl, Jennifer A. (2007). Enhancing software engineering education using teaching aids in 3-D online virtual worlds. In Frontiers in education conference – global engineering: knowledge without borders, opportunities without passports (p. TIE8-13). Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.

Three-dimensional Online Virtual Worlds such as Second Life support avatar-based communications, a wide spectrum of online activities, and development of various in-world teaching and learning tools. We have experimented with Second Life in two computer science classes, one at Ohio University, the other at the University of Mary Washington, to enhance software engineering education. We used Second Life as an innovative collaboration and communication tool both in and outside classroom to help facilitate teamwork and interactions among student project team members. Second Life was also used as the virtual office for instructors and teaching assistants to answer students’ questions during office hours. In addition, we developed two multi-player online software engineering educational games in Second Life, one based on the Groupthink software specification exercise developed at M.I.T., and the other based on the SimSE game (a 2-D single player game) developed at UC Irvine. By playing these two games, students learned fundamentals of software specification activities and principles of software development processes. In the paper, we will share our experience of using Second Life in two software engineering classes, and discuss its pros and cons based on the data collected from student surveys.

Yee, N., Bailenson, J.N., Urbanek, M., Chang, F., Merget, D. The Unbearable Likeness of Being Digital: The Persistence of Nonverbal Social Norms in Online Virtual Environments, retrieved from http://www.nickyee.com/pubs/Yee,%20Bailenson,%20Urbanek,%20Chang%20&%20Merget%20-%20SL%20NonVerbal.pdf on 4/7/08.

Every day, millions of users interact in real-time via avatars in online environments, such as massively-multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). These online environments could potentially be unique research platforms for the social sciences and clinical therapy, but it is crucial to first establish that social behavior and norms in virtual environments are comparable to those in the physical world. In an observational study of Second Life, a virtual community, we collected data from avatars in order to explore whether social norms of gender, interpersonal distance (IPD), and eye gaze transfer into virtual environments even though the modality of movement is entirely different (i.e., via keyboard and mouse as opposed to eyes and legs). Our results showed that established findings of IPD and eye gaze transfer into virtual environments: 1) Malemale dyads have larger IPDs than female-female dyads, 2) male-male dyads maintain less eye contact than female-female dyads, and 3) decreases in IPD are compensated with gaze avoidance as predicted by the Equilibrium Theory (Argyle, 1988). We discuss implications for users of online games as well as for social scientists who seek to conduct research in virtual environments.

Yellowlees, P.M. (2006). Education About Hallucinations Using an Internet Virtual Reality System: A Qualitative Survey. Use of Technology for Education (Special Issue), 30(6), p. 534-539.

Objective: The authors evaluate an Internet virtual reality technology as an education tool about the hallucinations of psychosis. Method: This is a pilot project using Second Life, an Internet-based virtual reality system, in which a virtual reality environment was constructed to simulate the auditory and visual hallucinations of two patients with schizophrenia. Eight hundred sixty-three self-referred users took a self-guided tour. Results: Five hundred seventy-nine (69%) of the users who toured the environment completed a survey. Of the survey responders, 440 (76%) thought the environment improved their understanding of auditory hallucinations, 69% thought it improved their understanding of visual hallucinations, and 82% said they would recommend the environment to a friend. Conclusions: Computer simulations of the perceptual phenomena of psychiatric illness are feasible with existing personal computer technology. Integration of the evaluation survey into the environment itself was possible. The use of Internet-connected graphics environments holds promise for public education about mental illness.

Youngblut, C. (1998). Educational Uses of Virtual Reality Technology. Institute for Defense Analyses. Retrieved from http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA339438 on 3/15/08. The potential of VR technology tor supporting education is widely recognized. It has already seen practical use in an estimated 20 or more public schools and colleges, and many more have been involved in evaluation or research efforts. This document reviews current efforts that are developing, evaluating, or using VR technology in education. It builds a picture of the states of the art and practice, and reviews some of the critical questions that are being addressed. Educational uses of the technology are broadly distinguished as those where students interact with pre-developed VR applications and those where students develop their own virtual worlds in the course of researching, understanding, and demonstrating their grasp of some subject matter. Forty-three efforts in the category of pre-developed applications and another 21 efforts in the category of student virtual world development are reported in this paper. The results of 35 evaluations that have been completed on these efforts are summarized. Another 20 ongoing or planned evaluations are identified.